Elementary Writing & Grammar

The big picture

The dog ran. Three words give us someone to think about and something that happened. Compare The dog. That could label a picture, but it is not a complete statement. We will build short statements, then check their parts.

In this course, we practice edited written English often used in school reports. Families and communities use different varieties of English. Learning this writing style adds a choice; it does not make your home language inferior. Poems, signs and dialogue may use patterns different from our practice statements.

What a sentence is

In our complete statement The dog ran., the dog is the subject and ran is the verb. This sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a period.

Teachers sometimes call this a complete thought. For our statement examples, look for a subject, the who or what, and a complete verb part telling something about it. Meaning alone is not a perfect test: My dog vanished. is complete even if you wonder where the dog went.

Key idea: Our example statement has a subject and a complete verb part.

A complete thought

Read these words: The puppy barked. Does it make sense by itself? Yes! You know who (the puppy). You know what happened (it barked). That is a complete thought. So it is a sentence.

Now read these words: The fluffy little. Does it make sense? No. It leaves you hanging. The fluffy little what? This is not a sentence. The thought is not finished.

Key idea: A complete thought makes sense on its own.

A simple check

Here is a starting question. After you read some words, ask yourself one question: "Does this tell a whole idea, or does it leave me wondering?"

Use that question to start checking, then look at the structure. After the dog ran. has a dog and an action, but after leaves it waiting for a main statement: After the dog ran, it rested. A reader may understand an unfinished phrase from context; that does not make it a complete practice statement.

• We ate lunch. This is a sentence. It is a whole idea.
• Ran to the park. This is NOT a sentence. Who ran? A part is missing.
• My sister and I. This is NOT a sentence. What did they do? A part is missing.
• My sister and I played tag. Now it is a sentence! It tells a whole idea.

Key idea: Check whether the statement is grammatically complete, not whether you know every detail.

Make a weak one strong

Let us fix a group of words together. Watch how we make it a real sentence.

Weak: The big cat. (This leaves us wondering. The big cat did what?)

Strong: The big cat slept. (Now it tells a whole idea. Nice!)

Try one more in your head. Weak: Under the tree. Can you add words to make it a whole idea? You could say: We sat under the tree. Great job!

Key idea: Add the missing words to make a whole idea.

Sentences you can copy

Here are short sentences you can read and copy. Each one tells a whole idea.

• I like to run.
• The sun is warm.
• My mom made soup.
• Birds sing in the morning.

Now write a statement about something you did today. Check that it has a subject and a complete verb, can stand on its own, and says what you mean.

Key idea: Copy good sentences, then try your own.

Sentences are everywhere

Once you start looking, you will see sentences all around you. They are in books. They are on signs. They are in notes and texts. Some signs and notes use short phrases, such as No entry, rather than complete sentences.

When you write, your job is to share your idea so clearly that the reader gets it. That is what a sentence does. Ready? Let us write!

Key idea: Sentences help you share your ideas with others.

Sort these yourself

Here is a quick game. Read each line. Say "sentence" or say "not yet." Then check the answers.

• The bus stopped.
• A big red.
• My cat sleeps on my bed.
• Two silly ducks.
• We won the game!
• Ran very fast.

Answers: "The bus stopped" is a sentence. "A big red" is not yet, because a big red what? "My cat sleeps on my bed" is a sentence. "Two silly ducks" is not yet, because the ducks do not do anything. "We won the game!" is a sentence. "Ran very fast" is not yet, because we do not know who ran.

Did you miss one? That is fine. Missing one shows you where the tricky spots are.

Key idea: Explain which part is present and which is missing; do not rely only on how the words sound.

Fix them one at a time

Now watch me fix a group of words. I will think out loud so you can copy my steps.

Before: Three yellow ducks.

Step 1. Does this leave me wondering? Yes. The ducks do not do anything.

Step 2. What could they do? Maybe they swim.

Step 3. Add it. After: Three yellow ducks swim in the pond. Now it tells a whole idea.

Your turn. Fix these three in your head. Then read my answers.

• Before: Sat on the swing. After: My brother sat on the swing. I added who.
• Before: The old brown dog. After: The old brown dog barked. I added what happened.
• Before: In the kitchen. After: Dad cooks in the kitchen. I added who and what.

Your words do not have to match mine. Check that your statement has a subject and a complete verb, can stand on its own, and says what you mean.

Key idea: To fix broken words, add the missing who or the missing what happened.

Grow a sentence step by step

A sentence can start tiny and then grow. Watch this one grow, line by line.

• Birds fly.
• Two birds fly.
• Two birds fly over the pond.
• Two little birds fly over the quiet pond.

Every line is a real sentence. Even "Birds fly" is complete. It tells who (birds) and what they do (fly).

So a sentence does not have to be long to be good. Short ones are strong and clear. Longer ones give more detail. You get to choose.

Key idea: Short sentences count too. Length is your choice, not a rule.

Say it before you write it

Here is a habit that helps a lot. Before you write, say your sentence out loud. Your ears often catch a missing part before your eyes do.

Try it now, aloud or silently: The kite. Then The kite flew high. In the second example, flew high tells what happened. You can point to the parts even if reading aloud is not useful or possible for you.

Key idea: Say it out loud first. Check the subject and verb part, using speech, silent reading or a helper.

Write four of your own

Now it is your turn. Finish each starter so it tells a whole idea.

• My favorite food is ___.
• Today I ___.
• My friend ___.
• The best game is ___.

Read each line silently or aloud. For these statements, check for a subject and a complete verb, then ask whether the line can stand on its own. A complete sentence can still leave you curious about what happens next.

Do not worry about spelling right now. Getting the whole idea down is today's job.

Key idea: Write it, read it out loud, then check for missing parts.

Common misconceptions

• Groups of words that stop too soon, like "The little red." A part is missing.
• Forgetting the capital letter at the start.
• Forgetting the period at the end.
• Thinking only actions count. The tall dog is calm. is complete too: is calm describes a state.
• Thinking a sentence must be long. "I ran." is a fine sentence.

Recap

• Complete thought is a shorthand; grammar, not curiosity alone, determines sentence completeness.
• It starts with a capital and ends with a mark like a period.
• Check structure, not curiosity: a complete sentence can still leave a reader with questions.
• If words are missing, add the who or the what happened.
• Say your sentence out loud before you write it.
• Short sentences are real sentences too.

Sources

1. Department for Education. (2013). English glossary, entries on sentences, word classes and phonemes. Terminology reference; its curriculum jurisdiction is England. Source
2. Purdue OWL. (n.d.). Sentence fragments. Guidance for edited academic prose, including dependent clauses. Source
3. National Council of Teachers of English. (1974). Resolution on the students' right to their own language. Dialect respect and access to edited written English. Source

The big picture

The happy dog wagged its tail. Draw a line after dog. On the left is the subject, our naming part. On the right is the predicate, our telling part. This lesson starts with simple statements in edited written English.

The telling part can describe a state as well as an action: The dog | is sleepy. Commands work differently. Sit. is a complete command with the subject you understood, not missing by mistake. Questions can arrange the parts differently: Is the dog sleepy?

Two parts work together

Grown-ups sometimes call these parts the subject and the predicate. But we can use easy names. We will say the naming part and the telling part.

When you put the two parts together, you get a whole idea. That is a sentence!

Key idea: Our simple statements have a subject and a predicate. A command can leave its subject understood.

The naming part

The naming part tells who or what the sentence is about. It answers the question, "Who or what?" Example: In "The happy dog wagged its tail," the naming part is The happy dog.

Ask, "Who or what is this about?" The answer is your naming part.

Key idea: The naming part is who or what.

The telling part

The telling part tells what happens. It answers the question, "What happens?" Example: In "The happy dog wagged its tail," the telling part is wagged its tail.

Ask, "What happens?" The answer is your telling part.

Key idea: The telling part is what happens.

See the two parts

Here is a picture of how the two parts fit together to make one sentence.

Key idea: Naming part plus telling part makes a sentence.

Find both parts

Let us practice. The naming part is who or what. The telling part is what happens. The line shows where they split.

• My little brother | ate all the crackers.
• The red balloon | floated away.
• Our whole class | went to the zoo.

See how each sentence needs both parts? If you only have the naming part, like "My little brother," the reader wonders what he did. If you only have the telling part, like "ate all the crackers," the reader wonders who did it.

Key idea: Our simple statements show a subject and predicate; commands may leave the subject understood.

Build your own

You can make a sentence by picking a naming part and adding a telling part. Try it!

• Naming part: The cat. Telling part: sat on the mat. Sentence: The cat sat on the mat.
• Naming part: My friend. Telling part: waved at me. Sentence: My friend waved at me.

Now think of a naming part, like "The bus." Add a telling part, like "stopped at the corner." You just built a sentence. Well done!

Key idea: Pick a naming part, add a telling part, and you have a sentence.

Cut a sentence in two

Let me show you how I find the split. I will use this sentence: The yellow school bus stopped at my corner.

Step 1. I ask, "Who or what is this about?" The answer is The yellow school bus. That is the naming part.

Step 2. I ask, "What happens?" The answer is stopped at my corner. That is the telling part.

Step 3. I draw a line between them. The yellow school bus | stopped at my corner.

Now try these four. Say where the line goes. Then check my answers.

• Two ants carried a crumb. Split: Two ants | carried a crumb.
• My grandpa tells funny jokes. Split: My grandpa | tells funny jokes.
• The rain fell all night. Split: The rain | fell all night.
• A tiny green frog hopped away. Split: A tiny green frog | hopped away.

Key idea: Ask "who or what?" and then "what happens?" The split will show up.

Parts can be short or long

A naming part can be one word. It can also be many words.

• Dogs bark. Here the naming part is just Dogs. One word!
• Big dogs bark. Now the naming part is Big dogs.
• The three big dogs next door bark. Now it is The three big dogs next door.

All three are correct sentences. The naming part grew, but its job stayed the same. It still tells who or what.

Telling parts work the same way. She sang. is fine. She sang a silly song in the car. is also fine.

Key idea: A part can be one word or many words. Its job does not change.

Mix and match game

Here is a fun game. Pick one naming part. Pick one telling part. Put them together.

• Naming parts: My silly cat, The old truck, Three noisy birds, My best friend
• Telling parts: hid under the bed, rolled down the hill, sang in the tree, shared her snack

You could make My silly cat hid under the bed. You could also make a funny one, like The old truck sang in the tree.

Silly is allowed! It is still a real sentence, because it has both parts. Make four sentences this way and read each one out loud.

Key idea: Try the parts together, then check grammar and intended meaning. In the present tense, The bird sings and The birds sing need different verb forms. A playful idea can be grammatical without describing a real event.

Which part is missing?

In the examples below, a naming or telling part is missing. Find it and add it. Other fragments can contain both parts: because the dog barked has a subject and verb but cannot stand alone as a statement.

• The tall red barn. The telling part is missing. Fix: The tall red barn needs paint.
• Splashed in the puddle. The naming part is missing. Fix: My little sister splashed in the puddle.
• All the hungry kittens. The telling part is missing. Fix: All the hungry kittens ate fast.
• Flew over the house. The naming part is missing. Fix: A blue plane flew over the house.

Do you see the pattern? If you know who but not what, add a telling part. If you know what but not who, add a naming part.

Key idea: Spot the missing part first. Then you know just what to add.

Common misconceptions

• A naming part with no telling part, like "The tall tree." What did the tree do?
• A telling part with no naming part, like "ran very fast." Who ran?
• Thinking a long group of words is always a sentence. Check for both parts.
• Splitting in the wrong spot. The line goes right before what happens.

Recap

• The naming part tells who or what.
• The telling part tells what happens or what is said about the subject.
• Our simple statements show both parts; commands can have an understood subject.
• Check by asking, "Who or what?" and "What happens?"
• Parts can be one word or many words.
• To fix broken words, add the part that is missing.

Sources

1. Department for Education. (2013). English glossary, entries on sentences, word classes and phonemes. Terminology reference; its curriculum jurisdiction is England. Source
2. Purdue OWL. (n.d.). Sentence fragments. Guidance for edited academic prose, including dependent clauses. Source

The big picture

The girl put her book on the table. Girl, book and table are nouns. Nouns can name people, places, objects, animals and ideas. Kindness is a noun too, even though you cannot point to it like a table.

What a noun is

What do we call a word that names a person, a place, a thing, or an animal? A noun. Dog, park, cup, and teacher are all nouns.

Here is a quick test. If you can put the word "a" or "the" in front of it, it is usually a noun. You can say "a cup" and "the dog." So cup and dog are nouns.

Key idea: A noun can name a person, place, object, animal, idea or quality.

Four kinds of nouns to spot

Key idea: Nouns can be a person, place, thing, or animal.

Find the nouns

Read this sentence: The girl put her book on the table. Which words name something? Girl (a person), book (a thing), and table (a thing). Those three are nouns.

See how each one is a thing you could point to or picture in your mind? That is a good way to find a noun.

Key idea: Concrete nouns name things like tables; abstract nouns name ideas or qualities like kindness. Both are nouns.

Special naming words: proper nouns

Some nouns name one special person, place, or thing, like Maria, Texas, or Monday. These are called proper nouns. In our edited prose, proper names normally begin with a capital letter.

A regular noun like "girl" is not capitalized. But the name "Maria" is. Look at the difference.

• dog (any dog) but Rex (the dog name) with a capital R
• city (any city) but Chicago (one special city) with a capital C
• month (any month) but July (one special month) with a capital J

Key idea: A proper noun names something special and starts with a capital.

Use nouns in a sentence

Nouns make your writing clear. Watch how nouns fill in a sentence.

Not clear: I saw it there. (What did you see? Where?)

Clear: I saw a deer at the pond. (Now the nouns deer and pond tell us more.)

Try it yourself. Think of two nouns, like "cat" and "yard." Put them in a sentence: The cat ran across the yard. Great naming!

Key idea: Nouns make your writing clear.

Go on a noun hunt

Stop reading for one minute and look around the room you are in. Point at five things and say their names out loud.

Maybe you said chair, window, lamp, floor, and door. Every one of those is a noun! Nouns are not a school thing. They are everywhere, all day long.

Now look for a person noun (like sister or teacher) and an animal noun (like dog or bug). If you have a pet, its name is a proper noun, so it gets a capital.

Key idea: You can find nouns anywhere by pointing at things and naming them.

Sort them into four baskets

Imagine four baskets: person, place, thing, and animal. Here are eight nouns. Which basket does each one go in?

• beach, horse, spoon, nurse, tiger, library, uncle, hat

Here are the answers. Person: nurse, uncle. Place: beach, library. Thing: spoon, hat. Animal: horse, tiger.

Some words could fit in more than one basket, and that is okay. What matters is that all of them name something. That is what makes them nouns.

Key idea: Nouns can name ideas and qualities as well as people, places, objects and animals.

One or more than one

A noun can name one thing or many things. A noun that names more than one is called a plural noun.

Most of the time you just add s.

• one cat becomes two cats
• one book becomes ten books
• one tree becomes six trees

For examples ending in s, x, sh, or the ch sound in bench, the plural often ends in es. Do not use spelling alone as a perfect test: the ch in stomach sounds like k, and its plural is stomachs.

• one bus becomes three buses
• one box becomes two boxes
• one dish becomes four dishes

A few nouns change in their own way, like one child and two children, or one mouse and two mice. Those you learn by heart.

Key idea: Many plurals add s; words like bus, box, bench and dish add es. Check exceptions.

Common noun or proper noun?

Try sorting these six. Say "common" for any one, or "proper" for one special one.

• river, Ohio River, girl, Amina, holiday, Thanksgiving

Answers: river, girl, and holiday are common nouns. Ohio River, Amina, and Thanksgiving are proper nouns, so they get capitals.

A proper noun is used as a name, not a promise that only one person or place has it. Two children can both be named Amina. Both names still take a capital in our writing style. The common noun river is a category; Ohio River is a name.

Key idea: If the noun names one special one, capitalize it.

Count the nouns

Ready for a challenge? Find every noun in each sentence. Count them, then check.

• My uncle drove the truck to the farm. Nouns: uncle, truck, farm. That is three.
• The bird dropped a seed on the porch. Nouns: bird, seed, porch. Three again.
• Sofia packed apples, bread, and cheese in her bag. Nouns: Sofia, apples, bread, cheese, bag. That is five, and one is proper.

Check how the word works in its sentence. In "the hope grew," hope is a noun even though you cannot point to it. In "I hope we win," hope is a verb. A picture alone cannot tell you the word class.

Key idea: Check what the word does in this sentence.

Check a word in two settings

Compare I paint the door and The paint is blue. In the first, paint is a verb; in the second, paint is a noun. Now compare They hope for rain and Hope kept them going. The same spelling can have a different job. Underline the subject and circle the complete verb part before classifying an unfamiliar word.

Check: In the second sentence of each pair, paint and Hope are subjects. This is stronger evidence than deciding whether a word sounds like an action. In your next piece, choose one noun and explain its job in that sentence.

Common misconceptions

• Forgetting the capital on a name. Sam, not sam.
• Judging a word without a sentence. In I run, run is a verb; in I enjoyed the run, run is a noun.
• Leaving out nouns, so the reader does not know the who or the what.
• Adding just s to a word that ends in ch or sh. It is benches, not benchs.

Recap

• A noun can name a person, place, object, animal, idea or quality.
• You can often put "a" or "the" in front of a noun.
• A proper noun names something special and starts with a capital.
• Many plurals add s; words like bus, box, bench and dish add es. Check exceptions.
• Nouns tell the reader the who, the where, and the what.

Sources

1. Department for Education. (2013). English glossary, entries on sentences, word classes and phonemes. Terminology reference; its curriculum jurisdiction is England. Source
2. National Council of Teachers of English. (1974). Resolution on the students' right to their own language. Dialect respect and access to edited written English. Source

The big picture

The frog jumped. The verb jumped tells an action. In The frog is still, is is a verb too. Verbs can express actions, states and happenings. Our complete practice statements need a complete verb part, not necessarily movement.

What a verb is

What do we call a word that shows action or being? A verb. When you run, jump, eat, sing, or think, you are doing verbs!

The verb is the heart of the telling part. Without a verb, a sentence cannot tell what happens.

Key idea: A verb shows action or being.

Action verbs

Many familiar verbs are action verbs. An action verb tells what someone or something does.

Read this sentence and find the action: The rabbit hopped across the yard. What did the rabbit do? It hopped. That is the verb. Here are more action verbs in bold.

• The bird flew to its nest.
• We painted a big picture.
• My dad cooked dinner.
• The children laughed at the joke.

Key idea: An action verb tells what someone does.

Being verbs

Not all verbs show an action. Instead, they tell what something is or how it feels. These are called being verbs. The most common ones are am, is, are, was, and were.

• I am happy.
• She is tall.
• They were tired.

Nobody is running or jumping in those sentences. But am, is, and were are still verbs. They tie the sentence together.

Key idea: Being verbs like is and are tell what something is.

Find the verb

To find the verb, ask, "What is happening?" or "What is the naming part doing?" The answer is the verb.

• The fish swims. The verb is swims.
• My baby sister claps. The verb is claps.
• The rain fell all night. The verb is fell.

Key idea: Ask "What is happening?" to find the verb.

Strong verbs make writing better

A specific verb can tell a reader more about an action. Choose it for accuracy, not excitement alone. If a dog walked slowly, raced would change your meaning rather than improve it.

Weak: The dog went down the street.

Strong: The dog raced down the street.

The word raced paints a clearer picture than plain old went. You can almost see the dog run! Other strong choices are dashed, trotted, or zoomed.

As you write, ask, "Is there a more exciting verb I could use?" Picking the perfect action word is one of the most fun parts of writing.

Key idea: A strong verb paints a clearer picture.

Act it out

Choose safe, comfortable actions, imagine them, or draw a stick figure doing them. You do not need to stand or move to identify a verb.

• Hop three times. You just did the verb hop.
• Clap twice. That is the verb clap.
• Stretch up tall. That is the verb stretch.
• Now sit still and think about lunch. Even think is a verb, and nobody can see it!

Some verbs you can see, like hop and clap. Some happen inside you, like think, hope, and remember. Both kinds are real verbs.

Key idea: Verbs can be things you do outside or inside your head.

Find the verb in each one

Read each sentence. Ask, "What is happening?" Say the verb out loud, then check.

• The kettle whistled on the stove. Verb: whistled.
• Grandma knits warm socks. Verb: knits.
• Our team won the game. Verb: won.
• The kitten is sleepy. Verb: is. This one is a being verb.
• Snow covered the whole yard. Verb: covered.

Did the being verb trip you up? It trips up lots of people. Just remember that am, is, are, was, and were are verbs even though nothing moves.

Key idea: Ask "what is happening?" and do not forget being verbs.

Verbs tell you when

Verb forms help place an event in time. The simple present often describes habits, not just this instant. Compare I walk to school each day with I am walking now. Our examples below contrast present habits or descriptions with past events.

• Habit: I walk to school. Before: I walked to school.
• General description: She jumps high. Before: She jumped high.
• Habit: We play outside. Before: We played outside.

Do you see the pattern? Adding ed usually means it already happened.

Some common verbs do not follow the ed rule. We say ran, not runned. We say ate, not eated. We say went, not goed. These are worth learning by heart, and you can check a dictionary when you are unsure.

Key idea: Adding ed usually means it already happened, but some verbs change instead.

Trade up your verbs

Here is a game called Trade Up. Take a plain verb and swap in a stronger one.

• Before: The girl said her answer. After: The girl shouted her answer.
• Before: The boat went across the lake. After: The boat glided across the lake.
• Before: I ate my sandwich. After: I gobbled my sandwich.
• Before: The leaves moved in the wind. After: The leaves danced in the wind.

Each swap changes meaning: saying is not always shouting, and eating is not always gobbling. Use these versions only if that is the action you mean. In factual writing, do not invent a more dramatic action.

One warning. Do not trade up every single verb. Sometimes plain said is exactly right. Save your strongest verbs for your most important moments.

Key idea: Swapping one plain verb for a strong one can lift a whole sentence.

Put the verb back in

Each group below is missing its verb. Say a verb that would fit, then compare with mine.

• The tall giraffe ___ the leaves. Mine: nibbled.
• My baby brother ___ in his crib. Mine: giggled.
• Cold rain ___ on the roof. Mine: drummed.
• The old gate ___ when I pushed it. Mine: creaked.

Your verbs are probably different from mine, and different is fine. What matters is that the sentence now tells what happens.

Key idea: Without a verb, a sentence cannot tell what happens.

Common misconceptions

• Sentences with no verb, like "The tall dog." Add a verb: The tall dog barked.
• Using plain verbs over and over, like went or got. Try a stronger one.
• Forgetting that am, is, are, was, and were are verbs too.
• Saying "runned" or "goed." Those verbs change to ran and went.

Recap

• A verb shows action or being.
• Action verbs tell what someone does, like run and jump.
• Being verbs like is and are tell what something is.
• Adding ed usually shows it already happened.
• Strong verbs make your writing exciting.

Sources

1. Department for Education. (2013). English glossary, entries on sentences, word classes and phonemes. Terminology reference; its curriculum jurisdiction is England. Source
2. National Council of Teachers of English. (2018). Understanding and teaching writing: Guiding principles. Purpose, audience, choice and revision; a position statement, not a trial. Source

The big picture

The wet dog waited. Wet describes the dog. It is an adjective. Compare The dog was wet: the adjective follows the verb here, but still describes the dog. We will choose details that fit what we mean.

What an adjective is

What do we call a word that describes a noun? An adjective. It tells what kind, how many, or which one. Example: in "the fluffy cat," the word fluffy describes the noun cat.

Some school grammars also call numbers and words like this adjectives. Other grammars distinguish numbers and determiners from adjectives. We will name what each word does and focus on clear describing examples such as fluffy and red.

Key idea: An adjective describes a noun.

What adjectives tell us

• What kind: a fluffy cat, a loud noise, a sweet apple
• How many: three dogs, many stars, few cookies
• Which one: this book, that chair
• Color or size: a red ball, a tiny ant, a huge mountain

Key idea: Adjectives tell what kind, how many, or which one.

See the difference adjectives make

Compare these two sentences.

Plain: The dog ran to the house.

Colorful: The big, brown dog ran to the little red house.

The second sentence lets you picture so much more! The words big, brown, little, and red are all adjectives. They describe the nouns dog and house. Now you can really see the picture in your mind.

Key idea: Adjectives help the reader picture things.

Where adjectives go

Most of the time, an adjective goes right before the noun it describes. Look: a happy child, a warm blanket, a shiny coin.

Do not put a comma between every pair. Use one between equal descriptions that work with and: a cold, windy day. But write a small red ball without a comma. The size and color build a combined description. No comma belongs between the last adjective and its noun.

Key idea: An adjective usually goes right before its noun.

Sensory words

Some of the best adjectives are sensory words. Sensory words tell how something looks, sounds, feels, smells, or tastes. They help the reader use their five senses.

• Looks: shiny, bright, dark
• Sounds: loud, quiet, crunchy
• Feels: soft, bumpy, cold
• Smells and tastes: sweet, sour, fresh

Try this: The soft, warm cookie smelled sweet. Can you feel and smell it? That is the power of sensory words!

Key idea: Sensory words help the reader use their senses.

Do not add too many

Here is a tip. Do not add too many adjectives at once. One or two well-chosen adjectives are usually better than five.

Good: A fluffy white kitten.

Too much: A fluffy, white, small, soft, cute, tiny kitten.

Choose the adjectives that matter most, and your writing will shine.

Key idea: Choose useful details for this task, not a fixed number of adjectives.

Describe one thing many ways

Pick one object. I will pick an apple. Now let me describe it with a different adjective each time.

• a red apple (color)
• a huge apple (size)
• a crisp apple (how it feels and sounds)
• a sour apple (taste)
• a bruised apple (what shape it is in)

Same apple every time. Five different pictures in your head. That is what adjectives do.

Now you try. Pick something near you, like a shoe or a cup. Say five different adjectives for it. Check that each word describes the object you mean. A factual description must fit the object; an imagined object can have invented qualities.

Key idea: One noun can be described many different ways.

Watch a sentence grow

Let me build one sentence step by step, adding one adjective at a time.

• Start: The dog waited by the door.
• Add one: The wet dog waited by the door.
• Add another: The wet, shivering dog waited by the front door.

Each new word tells the reader something they did not know before. That is the test of a good adjective. If it adds nothing new, leave it out.

Compare: "The big large dog." Big and large mean almost the same thing, so the second one is wasted. Pick one and move on.

Key idea: A good adjective adds something new the reader did not know.

Pick the better adjective

Read each pair and decide which adjective helps the reader more.

• A nice day, or a sunny day? Sunny wins, because you can picture it.
• A bad smell, or a rotten smell? Rotten wins, because your nose almost knows it.
• A good cookie, or a warm, chewy cookie? Warm and chewy win.
• A big noise, or a crashing noise? Crashing wins, because you can hear it.

Words like nice, good, bad, and big are not wrong. They are just blurry. When you have time to choose, pick the sharper word.

Key idea: Use a specific description when the reader needs that detail; a general judgment can fit another task.

Your turn to add color

Here are four plain sentences. Add one or two adjectives to each one.

• The cat slept on the chair.
• I ate a sandwich.
• A bug crawled across the leaf.
• The wind shook the tree.

Here is one way to do the first: The striped cat slept on the soft chair. Your answer will be different from mine, and that is exactly right. Writers make different choices.

Read your new sentences out loud. If one sounds crowded, take an adjective back out. Taking words out is a real writing skill too.

Key idea: Add adjectives, read out loud, then take out any that crowd the sentence.

The mystery bag game

Here is a game to play with a friend or a grown-up. Put one small object in a paper bag so the other person cannot see it.

Now describe it using only adjectives. Do not say the noun! You might say, "It is round, smooth, cold, and shiny." Can they guess it is a coin?

This game shows why adjectives matter so much. The listener has no picture at all until your describing words give them one. Trade places and play again.

Key idea: Adjectives build the picture in the listener's mind.

Common misconceptions

• Piling up too many adjectives on one noun.
• Putting a comma between every two describing words. Compare a cold, windy day and a small red ball.
• Using a plain word when a sensory word would help, like "good" instead of "warm" or "sweet."
• Using two adjectives that mean the same thing, like "big large."

Recap

• An adjective describes a noun.
• It tells what kind, how many, or which one.
• It usually goes right before its noun.
• Sensory words help the reader see, hear, feel, smell, and taste.
• A good adjective adds something new, and sharp beats blurry.

Sources

1. Department for Education. (2013). English glossary, entries on sentences, word classes and phonemes. Terminology reference; its curriculum jurisdiction is England. Source
2. Purdue OWL. (n.d.). Extended rules for using commas, rules 1, 5 and 6 and comma abuse. Source

The big picture

My friend Ava is kind. M begins the sentence, and A begins the name Ava. These are capital, or uppercase, letters. We will practice conventions used in edited English prose; a poster, logo or poem may deliberately use a different style.

Big letters and small letters

A capital letter is an uppercase form, like A, B, C or D. A lowercase letter is a form like a, b, c or d. Size alone does not tell you the case: a lowercase b can be as tall as an uppercase letter.

Both kinds are useful. The examples below show when this kind of school writing uses each one.

Key idea: Capital and lowercase name letter forms, not how large someone prints them.

Rule 1: Start every sentence with a capital

The very first letter of every sentence must be a capital. It is like a signal that says, "A new sentence begins here!"

• Correct: The sun is bright today.
• Wrong: the sun is bright today. (the T needs to be capital)

Key idea: Every sentence starts with a capital.

Rule 2: Always capitalize the word I

When you write the word I (meaning yourself), it is always a capital. It does not matter where it is in the sentence. This is an English spelling convention, not a measure of anyone's importance.

• Correct: My friend and I went home.
• Wrong: My friend and i went home.

Key idea: The word I is always a capital.

Rule 3: Capitalize names and special words

Names of people, places, days, and months get a capital letter. These are the proper nouns you met before. A proper noun names one special thing.

Key idea: Names, days, months, and places get a capital.

Fix these sentences

Can you spot what needs a capital? Try fixing each one in your head. Then check.

• Weak: my dog max is funny. Fix: My dog Max is funny. (start of sentence, and Max is a name)
• Weak: on friday i go to school. Fix: On Friday I go to school. (start, Friday is a day, and I is always capital)

Key idea: Check the start, names, days, months, and the word I.

Write your own

Now you try. Write a sentence about a friend. Use their name. Watch your capitals!

Example plan: Start with a capital. Add your friend name with a capital. End with a period. Sentence: My friend Ava is kind. Well done!

Key idea: Plan your capitals before you write.

Words that are tricky

Some words get a capital sometimes and not other times. Here is the trick that sorts them out.

If the word is being used as the person's name, capitalize it. If you are just talking about that kind of person, do not.

• I asked Mom for help. (Here Mom is her name, so it is capital.)
• I asked my mom for help. (Here it comes after "my," so it is lowercase.)
• We visited Grandpa Ray. (His name, so capital.)
• We visited my grandpa. (Not his name, so lowercase.)

Here is a quick test. Try swapping in a real first name. If "I asked Sara for help" sounds right, then Mom needs a capital.

This one confuses many grown-ups too, so do not worry if it takes practice.

Key idea: Capitalize a family word only when it is used as the person's name.

Capitals in titles

Titles can follow different styles. For a title you invent in this exercise, use title case: capitalize the first and last words, nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. When naming a published book, copy its title accurately. Some style guides instead use sentence case, with fewer capitals.

Small words like a, an, the, of, and, in, and to stay lowercase, unless they come first or last in our title-case style.

• Charlotte's Web
• The Cat in the Hat
• Where the Wild Things Are

Look at The Cat in the Hat. The first "The" is capital because it starts the title. The second "the" is lowercase because it is a small word inside.

Key idea: In a title, capitalize the first word, the last word, and the important words.

Be the capital detective

Each sentence below has capital mistakes. Fix them in your head, then check my answers.

• my birthday is in april. Fix: My birthday is in April. (start of sentence, and a month)
• Last summer sam and i swam in lake erie. Fix: Last summer Sam and I swam in Lake Erie. (a name, the word I, and a place)
• we read charlotte's web on tuesday. Fix: We read Charlotte's Web on Tuesday. (start, a title, and a day)
• Did you see MY new Bike? Fix: Did you see my new bike? (my and bike are not special, so no capitals)

The last one is a good reminder. Extra capitals are a mistake too. Capitals mean something, so use them only when there is a reason.

Key idea: Too many capitals is a mistake, just like too few.

Write a note with capitals

Here is a real writing job. Write a short thank-you note to someone. Use their name, one day of the week, and the word I.

Here is my example. Dear Grandma Ruth,
Thank you for the puzzle. I worked on it all day Saturday.
Love,
Jonah

Count my capitals. Dear starts the greeting; Thank starts the first sentence. Grandma Ruth is her name. I is always capital. Saturday is a day. Love starts a new line. Jonah is a name.

Now write your own note and check every capital when you finish.

Key idea: Real notes are a great place to practice capitals.

A capital does not begin every line

Suppose a sentence wraps onto the next line because the paper is narrow. That line break does not start a new sentence. In We walked beside the river
and watched the ducks., and stays lowercase because the same sentence continues. Poems and display lettering can use other designs, but our report follows sentence boundaries.

Try writing a two-sentence note on a narrow strip of paper. Mark the actual sentence beginnings, not every line beginning. Then copy the note on a wider page. The line breaks may change, but the required sentence capitals do not.

Check: Ask why each capital is present: sentence beginning, name, title style or the pronoun I. Height and position on a fresh line are not enough by themselves.

Common misconceptions

• A lowercase letter at the start of a sentence.
• Writing the word i (yourself) with a small letter.
• Forgetting to capitalize a name, a day, or a month.
• Adding capitals in the MIDDLE of a word for no reason.
• Capitalizing a season just because it is a season. Use lowercase in We swim in summer, but a capital at the start of Summer is warm.

Recap

• Start every sentence with a capital.
• Always capitalize the word I.
• Capitalize names, days, months, and places.
• Capitalize Mom or Grandpa only when it is used as a name.
• In a title, capitalize the first word, the last word, and the important ones.
• Check your capitals when you finish writing.

Sources

1. Purdue OWL. (n.d.). A little help with capitals. Edited-prose conventions. Source
2. National Council of Teachers of English. (1974). Resolution on the students' right to their own language. Dialect respect and access to edited written English. Source

The big picture

You are here. and You are here? use the same words differently. One states something; the other asks for confirmation. We will use three common end marks in edited prose: the period, question mark and exclamation point.

What an end mark is

How does a reader know a sentence is finished? A little punctuation mark called an end mark tells them. There are three: the period ( . ), the question mark ( ? ), and the exclamation point ( ! ).

Without an end mark, a sentence feels like it never stops. That can confuse your reader.

Key idea: Every sentence needs an end mark.

The period ( . )

A period ends a telling sentence. A telling sentence shares a fact or an idea. The period is the calm, everyday end mark. When your sentence just tells something, use a period.

• The cat is sleeping.
• I like to read books.
• We went to the park.

Key idea: A telling sentence ends with a period.

The question mark ( ? )

A question mark ends an asking sentence. An asking sentence is a question. If your sentence asks something and wants an answer, it needs a question mark.

Questions often start with words like who, what, where, when, why, how, or do.

• Where are my shoes?
• Do you want to play?
• Why is the sky blue?

Key idea: An asking sentence ends with a question mark.

The exclamation point ( ! )

An exclamation point shows strong feeling or excitement. Use it when a sentence is exciting, surprising, or said in a loud voice.

Be careful. If you use it too much, it stops feeling special. Save it for the truly exciting moments!

• Watch out!
• We won the game!
• What a beautiful day!

Key idea: An exclamation point shows strong feeling.

Which end mark fits?

Read each group of words. Decide which mark it needs.

• The dog ran away needs a period (it tells something): The dog ran away.
• Can I have a snack needs a question mark (it asks): Can I have a snack?
• I am so happy could take an exclamation point (strong feeling): I am so happy!

Key idea: Match the end mark to the kind of sentence.

Try a few yourself

Think about each one. What end mark would you add?

• The bus is here (this tells, so a period)
• Are you ready (this asks, so a question mark)
• Look at that (an ordinary instruction can take a period; an excited call can take an exclamation point)

Great choosing! You are learning to end every sentence the right way.

Key idea: Ask if the sentence tells, asks, or shows excitement.

Same words, different mark

Here is something amazing. The very same words can mean three different things, just because of the end mark.

• You are here. This tells a fact. Your voice stays calm and drops at the end.
• You are here? This asks. Your voice goes up, like you are surprised.
• You are here! This adds strong feeling, which might be delight or surprise; it does not require a shout.

Say all three out loud right now. Can you hear how different they feel? You did not change a single word. You only changed one tiny mark.

That is why end marks matter so much. They carry the feeling.

Key idea: One little mark can change the whole meaning of a sentence.

Choose by meaning, not pitch alone

You may try reading aloud, but voices and speech patterns vary. A question does not have to rise in pitch, and a loudly spoken statement can still end with a period. Decide what the sentence is doing in its context.

• For an ordinary statement in this exercise, use a period.
• For a direct question, use a question mark.
• To mark strong feeling or an urgent command, an exclamation point may fit.

Try these meanings: Is it raining? asks directly. The soup is hot. reports a fact. Ouch, that is hot! marks a strong reaction. An indirect report such as I asked whether it was raining. is a statement, not a direct question.

Key idea: Choose a mark that fits the sentence's meaning and purpose.

Punctuate a little story

Here is a short story with the end marks taken out. Read it and decide what each sentence needs.

Maya opened the box ___ What was inside ___ It was a puppy ___ She could not believe it ___ Is he really mine ___ she asked

Here is one good way to mark it. Maya opened the box. What was inside? It was a puppy! She could not believe it. "Is he really mine?" she asked.

Notice that not every sentence gets an exclamation point, even in an exciting story. The one big exclamation point stands out because the others are calm.

Key idea: Calm sentences make your one exciting sentence stand out.

Do not shout every time

Look at what happens when a writer uses too many exclamation points.

Too much: I woke up! I ate toast! I put on my shoes! I walked to school! A dog chased me!

Better: I woke up. I ate toast. I put on my shoes. I walked to school. Then a dog chased me!

In the second one, only the surprising part shouts. That makes the surprise land. In the first one, everything shouts, so nothing feels special.

Key idea: Save the exclamation point for the one moment that really deserves it.

Separate a question from a report about one

Compare Where is the key? with Ravi asked where the key was. The first directly asks the reader a question. The second reports Ravi's action. It can end with a period even though the word where appears in it. Question words alone do not choose the punctuation.

Try this pair: Tell me where you put it. and Where did you put it? The first is a request; the second is a direct question. In our exercise, use a period for the ordinary request and a question mark for the direct question.

Now write one question about a missing book. Rewrite it as a report beginning I asked.... Check the meaning and word order before choosing the end mark. A helper may discuss the difference with you, or you can mark which sentence directly asks.

Check: Explain the job of the whole sentence. Neither its first word nor the pitch of your voice is a complete punctuation test.

Common misconceptions

• Forgetting the end mark, so the sentence never stops.
• Using a period on a question, like "Where are you.".
• Using an exclamation point on every sentence, so it loses its power.
• Using more than one mark, like "Really???" One is enough.

Recap

• A period ends a telling sentence.
• A question mark ends an asking sentence.
• An exclamation point shows strong feeling.
• The same words can change meaning when the end mark changes.
• Choose by purpose, not by a fixed rule about how your voice sounds.
• Every sentence needs one of these end marks.

Sources

1. Department for Education. (2013). English glossary, entries on sentences, word classes and phonemes. Terminology reference; its curriculum jurisdiction is England. Source
2. Purdue OWL. (n.d.). A little help with capitals. Edited-prose conventions. Source

The big picture

The dog ran needs an end mark in edited prose, but it already has a subject and complete verb. Because the dog ran. has an end mark, but its clause depends on something more. These are different problems, so they need different fixes.

What a complete sentence has

A complete sentence has four things: a naming part (who or what), a telling part (what happens), a capital letter at the start, and an end mark at the finish.

A fragment is grammatically incomplete as a standalone sentence in our edited-prose exercise. Missing a capital or end mark alone is a writing-convention error, not a fragment. Commands such as Stop. have an understood subject, you, and are complete.

Key idea: Check grammatical completeness and written conventions as separate jobs.

What makes a fragment

A fragment is missing something it needs. Usually it is missing the naming part or the telling part. Look at these fragments and see what is missing.

• Ran across the field. Missing the naming part. Who ran?
• The little green frog. Missing the telling part. What did the frog do?
• After school. Missing both! Who, and what happened?

Key idea: A fragment is missing a needed part.

How to fix a fragment

To fix a fragment, add the missing part. Ask "Who or what?" and "What happens?" Then fill in whatever is missing. Watch.

See how adding the missing part turns a broken piece into a whole idea? Now each one makes sense on its own.

Key idea: Fix a fragment by adding the missing part.

A checklist for every sentence

Before you say a sentence is finished, run through this quick checklist.

1. Does it have a naming part (who or what)?
2. Does it have a telling part (what happens)?
3. Does it start with a capital letter?
4. Does it end with an end mark ( . ? or ! )?

This checklist is a starting point, not a perfect test. Also check whether a word such as because leaves a clause waiting for a main statement. Because it rained. becomes We stayed in because it rained. If only a capital or end mark is missing, fix that convention without adding an unnecessary subject or verb.

Key idea: Use the four-step checklist on every sentence.

Practice fixing together

Let us fix two more. Add the part that is missing.

• Fragment: The bright red car. Fix: The bright red car zoomed by.
• Fragment: Sang a happy song. Fix: The class sang a happy song.

Now try one on your own. Take the fragment "In the tall tree." Add a who and a what. You could write: A bird sat in the tall tree. Wonderful!

Key idea: Identify the missing or dependent structure before choosing a repair.

The other problem: squished sentences

A run-on joins independent clauses without a suitable connection or punctuation. It is not defined by length: I ran he fell. is short but faulty in edited prose. A longer sentence can be well formed.

Run-on: I fed the cat she was hungry.

Read it out loud. Did you feel yourself trip? That trip is the clue. Two whole ideas are stuck together.

There are two easy fixes.

• Split them up: I fed the cat. She was hungry.
• Join them with a joining word: I fed the cat because she was hungry.

Joining words like and, but, so, and because are helpful glue. Just remember that the glue has to be there. Without it, the ideas crash into each other.

Key idea: A run-on has two ideas squished together. Split them or glue them properly.

Spot the problem in a paragraph

Here is a short piece of writing with two problems in it. Can you find them?

My family went camping. In the woods. We put up the tent it started to rain. We ate marshmallows.

Here is what I found. "In the woods." is a fragment, because it is a phrase, not a complete statement. "We put up the tent it started to rain." is a run-on, because two ideas are squished. "My family went camping." and "We ate marshmallows." are both fine.

Here is the fixed version: My family went camping in the woods. We put up the tent, and then it started to rain. We ate marshmallows.

Key idea: Fragments and run-ons often hide in the middle of good writing.

Six to fix on your own

Read each one. Say fragment, run-on, or complete. Then fix the broken ones.

• The tiny brown mouse. Fragment. Fix: The tiny brown mouse hid in the wall.
• We ran fast we were late. Run-on. Fix: We ran fast because we were late.
• My cousin plays the drums. Complete. No fix needed.
• Waited at the bus stop. Fragment. Fix: Twelve kids waited at the bus stop.
• The soup is hot let it cool. Run-on. Fix: The soup is hot, so let it cool.
• Bees buzz. Complete. It is short, but it has both parts.

How did you do? If some were tricky, read them out loud. Check the clause boundaries too; not every problem is audible.

Key idea: Reading out loud helps you feel both fragments and run-ons.

Check a dependent clause

When the bell rang. includes a subject, the bell, and a verb, rang. Yet when makes the clause wait for another part in this edited report. Add we packed our bags: When the bell rang, we packed our bags. You can also remove when to make the shorter statement The bell rang. Those repairs have different meanings, so choose the one you intend.

Now compare we packed our bags. The grammar is already complete. Capitalize We and add a period; do not add extra words just because the writing lacked marks. Lastly, Pack your bags. is a complete command: you is understood.

Check: Sort the problem first: dependent clause, missing subject or verb, convention error, or complete command. Then make a repair you can explain.

Common misconceptions

• A group of words with no verb, like "The red car."
• A group of words with no naming part, like "Sang a song."
• Words that start with a capital but are still not whole, like "After lunch."
• Two ideas squished together with no end mark or joining word.
• Forgetting the end mark, even when both parts are there.

Recap

• Our simple statements need subjects and complete verb parts; capitals and end marks are separate editing checks.
• A fragment is missing a needed part.
• A run-on has two ideas squished together.
• Fix a fragment by adding the missing part, and fix a run-on by splitting or gluing.
• Use the four-step checklist every time.

Sources

1. Purdue OWL. (n.d.). Sentence fragments. Guidance for edited academic prose, including dependent clauses. Source
2. Department for Education. (2013). English glossary, entries on sentences, word classes and phonemes. Terminology reference; its curriculum jurisdiction is England. Source
3. Purdue OWL. (n.d.). Extended rules for using commas, rules 1, 5 and 6 and comma abuse. Source

The big picture

The dog barked. might be exactly enough for a quick report. In a story about a noisy street, you might want to add what the dog barked at. A strong sentence does the job its reader needs. More detail is a choice, not an automatic improvement.

What a strong sentence is

What makes a sentence stronger than just correct? Clear details that give the reader a good picture: that is a strong sentence. It helps the reader see exactly what you mean.

We will learn two ways to revise a sentence when its purpose calls for a change. One is adding details. One is combining short sentences.

Key idea: A strong sentence gives clear details.

Add details to answer questions

A plain sentence like "The dog barked" is fine. But you can make it stronger by answering questions like what kind, when, where, and how.

Plain: The dog barked.

Stronger: The big brown dog barked loudly at the mail truck.

Now the reader knows what kind of dog (big, brown), how it barked (loudly), and at what (the mail truck). You do not need to answer every question. One or two good details make a sentence come alive.

Key idea: Add a detail or two to make a sentence stronger.

Combine short, choppy sentences

Sometimes writing has too many short sentences in a row. It sounds choppy, which means bumpy. Like this: I have a cat. My cat is black. My cat is soft.

You can combine these into one smooth, strong sentence.

• Choppy: I have a cat. My cat is black. My cat is soft.
• Smooth: I have a soft, black cat.

Words like and, but, and because help you combine, too.

• Two sentences: I wanted to play. It was raining.
• Combined: I wanted to play, but it was raining.

Key idea: Combine short sentences to make writing smooth.

Show, do not just tell

Strong writers show instead of only telling. This means you describe actions and feelings so the reader can picture them.

Telling: It was cold.

Showing: I shivered and pulled my coat tight.

Telling: She was happy.

Showing: She jumped up and down and cheered.

Showing gives the reader a picture and a feeling. It is one of the best writing tricks there is.

Key idea: Show a feeling instead of just naming it.

Try it step by step

Let us grow a plain sentence together.

1. Start plain: The girl ate.
2. Add what kind: The hungry girl ate.
3. Add how and what: The hungry girl quickly ate a warm slice of pizza.

These details tell us more about this event. Try adding a useful detail to your own sentence. Compare the versions and keep the detail if it helps your intended reader.

Key idea: Grow a sentence one detail at a time.

The four detail questions

When a reader needs more information, try these four questions. Add the details that serve your meaning. There is no fixed number to include.

1. What kind?
2. Where?
3. When?
4. How?

Watch me use them on the sentence A bird sang.

• What kind? A small gray bird sang.
• Where? A small gray bird sang outside my window.
• When? Early this morning, a small gray bird sang outside my window.

I stopped here because these details tell the reader what I wanted to say. A detail about how could help a different message. Read the sentence and decide whether another detail adds useful meaning.

Now try the four questions on The truck stopped. Pick any two and see what you get.

Key idea: Ask what kind, where, when, and how, then choose the details your message needs.

Combine in more than one way

There is never only one right way to combine sentences. Look at these three short ones.

I have a bike. My bike is old. My bike is red.

Here are three good combinations.

• I have an old red bike.
• My bike is old, but I love its bright red paint.
• I have a bike, and even though it is old, it is still bright red.

All three are grammatical, but they do not preserve exactly the same information. The second invents a feeling about the paint. The third adds a contrast with even though. For a combining task that must keep only the original facts, choose the first. In a story draft you may add an intended feeling, then check the new meaning.

Key idea: There are many right ways to combine. You get to pick.

Show, do not tell: your turn

Read each telling sentence. Think of a showing sentence. Then compare with mine.

• Telling: He was scared. Mine: He froze and held his breath.
• Telling: The soup was too hot. Mine: I blew on my spoon three times.
• Telling: She was tired. Mine: Her eyes kept closing during the movie.
• Telling: The room was messy. Mine: Socks and books covered the whole floor.

Yours will be different from mine. That is what makes writing yours.

One tip. Showing takes more words, so do not show everything. Show the moments that matter most, and tell the rest quickly.

Key idea: Show the big moments and tell the small ones.

Do not overload

A strong sentence can go too far. Here is one that fell over.

Too much: The very big, very brown, very fluffy, very loud dog barked loudly and noisily and quickly at the shiny red mail truck that was driving slowly down the long street.

Better: The big brown dog barked at the mail truck.

Read the long one, aloud or silently. Which details repeat? Which ones does your reader need? Breathing is not a grammar test: people breathe differently and can pause within a well-formed sentence. Remove repetition or split ideas where the meaning becomes easier to follow.

Key idea: Judge length by clarity and purpose, not one breath.

Keep the meaning when you combine

Start with The gate opened. The dog ran outside. One combination is The gate opened, and the dog ran outside. Writing The dog ran outside because the gate opened adds a cause. That may be what you mean, but the original pair did not state it.

Try two versions of another pair: I wanted to play. It rained. Use and in one and but in the other. Explain how but emphasizes a contrast. Neither connector is a decoration; both help tell the reader how the ideas relate.

Check: Underline the facts in your original and combined versions. Circle a new cause, contrast or feeling. Keep it only if it belongs in the intended message.

Common misconceptions

• Too many short, choppy sentences in a row.
• Adding so many details that the sentence gets very long and hard to read.
• Only telling feelings ("she was mad") instead of showing them.
• Using the same detail twice, like "very big, very large."

Recap

• A strong sentence gives clear details and a good picture.
• Ask what kind, where, when, or how, then add details that help your reader.
• Combine short sentences to fix choppy writing.
• Show actions and feelings instead of only telling.
• Try a shorter version when it helps the reader follow your meaning.

Sources

1. National Council of Teachers of English. (2018). Understanding and teaching writing: Guiding principles. Purpose, audience, choice and revision; a position statement, not a trial. Source
2. Graham, S., McKeown, D., Kiuhara, S., and Harris, K. R. (2012). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for students in the elementary grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(4), 879-896. Author-name correction: doi:10.1037/a0029939. Source
3. Purdue OWL. (n.d.). Extended rules for using commas, rules 1, 5 and 6 and comma abuse. Source

The big picture

Recess is my favorite part of school. That sentence names a topic. Add reasons about playing and seeing friends, and you can build a focused paragraph. We will use a planning frame for one short explanatory paragraph, not a rule for every kind of writing.

What a paragraph is

What do we call a group of sentences that are all about one main topic? A paragraph. Every sentence in it works together to tell about that one idea.

Learning to write a paragraph is powerful. It lets you explain, describe, and share much more.

Key idea: A paragraph is a group of sentences about one topic.

The parts of a paragraph

Our practice paragraph uses three parts, like a sandwich. Other paragraphs can have one sentence, put a topic sentence later, or imply the topic without a separate topic sentence. Story dialogue often starts a new paragraph when the speaker changes.

Key idea: Our sandwich frame has a topic sentence, details and a closing sentence.

1. The topic sentence

For our practice paragraph, put the topic sentence first. It tells the reader the main idea. Other kinds of paragraphs may place it later or leave the main idea unstated.

For a paragraph about why dogs are great pets, the topic sentence might be: My dog is a wonderful companion.

Key idea: The topic sentence tells the main idea.

2. The detail sentences

Next come the detail sentences. They give reasons, facts, or examples that tell more about the topic sentence. For our dog paragraph:

• My dog greets me at the door.
• I taught my dog to sit for a treat.
• We play fetch together in our yard.

Key idea: Detail sentences tell more about the topic.

3. The closing sentence

The closing sentence wraps up the paragraph. It often says the main idea again in a fresh way: That is why I enjoy spending time with my dog.

Key idea: The closing sentence wraps up the paragraph.

Put it all together

Here is the whole paragraph.

My dog is a wonderful companion. My dog greets me at the door. I taught my dog to sit for a treat. We play fetch together in our yard. That is why I enjoy spending time with my dog.

See how every sentence sticks to one topic? That is the golden rule: stay on topic. If you suddenly wrote "I like pizza" in the middle, it would not belong, because it is off topic.

Key idea: Keep every sentence about your main idea.

Plan before you write

Try a quick plan: write your topic in the middle of a page and connect two or three relevant details to it. If you prefer, list the ideas or say them to a helper. This gives you material to inspect before drafting; you can change the plan later.

Topic in the middle: My favorite season is summer. Details around it: warm days, swimming, ice cream. Now you can write your paragraph!

Key idea: Plan your topic and details before you write.

Build one with me, sentence by sentence

Let us write a whole paragraph together about recess. I will add one sentence at a time and tell you what I am thinking.

Sentence 1, the topic sentence: Recess is the best part of my school day. I want the reader to know my big idea right away.

Sentence 2, a detail: I get to run around after sitting all morning. That is my first reason.

Sentence 3, another detail: My friends and I play four square by the fence. That gives the reader a picture.

Sentence 4, one more detail: I look forward to the chalk-drawing area. That is a different kind of reason.

Sentence 5, the closing: Twenty minutes outside makes the whole day better. This wraps it up without copying sentence 1 word for word.

Now read the five sentences together as one paragraph. Every one stays on topic, and it builds.

Key idea: Write the topic sentence first, then add one detail at a time.

Find the sentence that does not belong

Read this paragraph. One sentence wandered off topic. Can you find it?

Penguins are amazing swimmers. Their wings work like flippers in the water. They can dive very deep to catch fish. My uncle has a boat. Thick feathers keep them warm in cold water.

Did you spot it? "My uncle has a boat" does not belong. The paragraph is about penguins swimming, and the boat has nothing to do with that.

Off-topic sentences are easy to write and easy to miss. Here is how to check your own. Read your topic sentence, then read each detail and ask, "Does this tell more about that?"

Key idea: Check each sentence against your topic sentence.

Words that link your sentences

Little linking words help your paragraph flow. They tell the reader what is coming next.

• To start: First, To begin
• To add: Also, Next, Another reason
• To finish: Finally, Best of all, That is why

Watch how they smooth out our recess paragraph. Recess is the best part of my school day. First, I get to run around after sitting all morning. Also, my friends and I play four square. Best of all, I enjoy drawing with chalk outside.

Do not use one in front of every sentence, though. Two or three in a paragraph is plenty.

Key idea: Linking words like first, also, and finally guide your reader.

Your turn to plan and write

Pick one of these topics, or choose your own.

• Why my favorite animal is amazing
• The best game to play with a friend
• How to make my favorite snack

First write your topic sentence. Then list three details on scratch paper. Then write your closing sentence. For this exercise, use those notes to draft your paragraph; adjust them if your idea changes.

Try this plan, then compare it with your draft. Did a new detail appear while you wrote? You can revise the plan. There is no promise about how fast you will finish or how much you will erase.

Key idea: Plan the parts first, then write the paragraph.

Common misconceptions

• A sentence that goes off topic in the middle of the paragraph.
• Forgetting a topic sentence, so the reader does not know the main idea.
• Giving no details, so the paragraph is too short and empty.
• Making the closing sentence exactly the same as the topic sentence.

Recap

• A paragraph is a group of sentences about one topic.
• The topic sentence tells the main idea.
• Detail sentences give reasons, facts, or examples.
• The closing sentence wraps it up in a fresh way.
• Linking words like first, also, and finally help it flow.
• Stay on topic in every sentence.

Sources

1. National Council of Teachers of English. (2018). Understanding and teaching writing: Guiding principles. Purpose, audience, choice and revision; a position statement, not a trial. Source
2. Graham, S., et al. (2012, revised 2018). Teaching elementary school students to be effective writers. What Works Clearinghouse practice guide. Recommendations and evidence ratings, not a guarantee for an individual learner. Source

The big picture

Two small marks do big jobs in writing. They are the comma ( , ) and the apostrophe ( ' ). They look tiny, but they make your writing clear and correct. Let us learn the most useful rules!

What these marks do

A comma separates or sets off parts of a sentence. A reader may pause there, but a breathing pause is not a reliable comma rule. An apostrophe marks omitted letters in contractions or possession in forms such as Sam's.

Key idea: Commas mark structure; apostrophes can mark possession or omitted letters.

Commas in a list

When you list three or more things, put a comma between them. The comma tells the reader to pause a little between the items in a list.

• Without commas: I bought apples bananas and grapes. (confusing!)
• With commas: I bought apples, bananas, and grapes. (clear!)

Our list style includes a comma before the final and. This is called the serial comma. Some styles omit it when the meaning is clear. Use the stated style consistently; the comma is not a sign that you must take a breath.

Key idea: Put commas between items in a list of three or more.

Commas after a beginning word

Use a comma after certain words that start a sentence, like Yes, No, and Well. You can also use a comma after a beginning phrase that tells when.

• Yes, I would love to come.
• After lunch, we went outside.
• First, mix the flour and sugar.

Key idea: A comma can follow a beginning word or phrase.

Apostrophes to show owning

An apostrophe plus the letter s shows that something belongs to someone. This is called owning (grown-ups say possession).

• The toy that belongs to the dog = the dog's toy
• The hat that belongs to Sam = Sam's hat
• The room that belongs to my sister = my sister's room

Key idea: Apostrophe plus s shows that something belongs to someone.

Apostrophes in contractions

An apostrophe can mark omitted letters in a shortened form called a contraction. A contraction often combines words: do not becomes don't. It can also shorten one word: cannot becomes can't.

Key idea: In these contractions, an apostrophe marks omitted letters.

Fix these sentences

• Weak: I like red green and blue. Fix: I like red, green, and blue. (commas in a list)
• Weak: That is Marias book. Fix: That is Maria's book. (apostrophe for owning)
• Weak: We dont have any milk. Fix: We don't have any milk. (apostrophe in a contraction)

Key idea: Read your sentence and add the mark it needs.

A comma can change the meaning

Commas are small, but they really do change what a sentence says. Look at this pair.

• Without commas: My favorite things are reading my dog and pizza. That sounds like you read your dog!
• With commas: My favorite things are reading, my dog, and pizza. Much better. Now it is a list of three things.

Here is another one.

• Look at that Ben. Without the comma, it sounds like there are several Bens and you mean that one.
• Look at that, Ben. With the comma, you are talking straight to your friend Ben.

A name used to address someone is set off wherever it appears: Ben, look at that. Look, Ben, at that kite. Look at that, Ben. It does not always have a comma before it.

Key idea: A comma helps show how these words connect; meaning and structure guide its placement.

When NOT to use an apostrophe

Here is a plural-spelling mistake to check.

An apostrophe does not make a word plural. Ordinary noun plurals use forms such as dogs, boxes or children, without an apostrophe just for plurality. A style guide may use an apostrophe for isolated letters, as in two a's; that is a special case, not a model for writing two apple's.

• Wrong: I saw three dog's. Right: I saw three dogs.
• Wrong: We ate two apple's. Right: We ate two apples.
• Wrong: The banana's are ripe. Right: The bananas are ripe.

Ask what the form means. A plural such as dogs needs no apostrophe by itself. Possession and contractions need separate checks. For several dogs sharing a bowl, write the dogs' bowl; for an irregular plural, write the children's books.

• Three dogs barked. (just more than one, so no apostrophe)
• The dog's bowl is empty. (the bowl belongs to the dog, so use one)

Key idea: Distinguish ordinary plurals, possessives and contractions before choosing an apostrophe.

Its and it's

Compare the possessive its with the contraction it's. The contraction can stand for it is or it has.

Try expanding the contraction: It's cold means It is cold; It's been cold means It has been cold. For possession, use its, as in The cat licked its paw. Check meaning, not just the presence of an s.

• It's raining. Try it: "It is raining." That works, so it's is right.
• The cat licked its paw. Try it: "The cat licked it is paw." That sounds silly, so its is right.
• I think it's cold. Try it: "I think it is cold." That works.

Take your time with this one. Even grown-up writers stop and test it.

Key idea: Test whether you mean it is, it has, or possession.

Six to fix

Fix each sentence in your head, then check my answers.

• We packed socks shirts and shoes. Fix: We packed socks, shirts, and shoes.
• Thats Emmas jacket. Fix: That's Emma's jacket.
• The three cat's slept. Fix: The three cats slept.
• Yes I would like more. Fix: Yes, I would like more.
• The bird built it's nest. Fix: The bird built its nest.
• Come here Ravi. Fix: Come here, Ravi.

For each correction, name its reason: list, direct address, contraction, possession or ordinary plural. Revisit the example you missed, then try a new sentence using that pattern without looking at the answer.

Key idea: Check a correction, explain it, and later try the pattern in a new sentence.

Common misconceptions

• Forgetting the commas in a list, so words run together.
• Leaving out the apostrophe in a contraction, like dont instead of don't.
• Mixing up its and it's. Use it's for it is or it has; use its for possession.
• Adding an apostrophe just to make a word plural, like apple's.

Recap

• Put commas between items in a list.
• A comma can follow a beginning word like Yes or First.
• Set off a name used in direct address with the comma or commas its position needs.
• For an ordinary singular noun, apostrophe plus s can show possession.
• In these contractions, an apostrophe marks omitted letters.
• Ordinary noun plurals do not take an apostrophe just for plurality; special style cases such as isolated letters differ.

Sources

1. Purdue OWL. (n.d.). Extended rules for using commas, rules 1, 5 and 6 and comma abuse. Source
2. Purdue OWL. (n.d.). Apostrophe introduction. Possessive nouns, contractions and special letter plurals. Source
3. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. (2022). Its, fifth edition, usage note. It's can mean it is or it has. Source

The big picture

Tia the turtle wants to finish a swimming race. What happens when she falls behind? We will use this imagined character to plan a problem-and-resolution story. The plan is one useful pattern; stories can also explore a memory, discovery or encounter without a solved problem.

What a story is

What do we call a piece of writing that tells about characters and events, often made up from your imagination? A story. For our story plan, we will think about three parts: a beginning, a middle, and an end.

Key idea: A story has a beginning, a middle, and an end.

The beginning

The beginning introduces the character (who the story is about) and the setting (where and when it happens). It often hints at what the character wants.

Example: Once there was a little turtle named Tia who lived by a quiet pond. More than anything, Tia wished she could win the pond swimming race.

Key idea: The beginning shows the character and the setting.

The middle

The middle is where the problem happens and the character tries to solve it. In this example, this is where Tia faces a challenge. The problem is the trouble or challenge the character faces.

Example: On race day, Tia jumped in, but the other animals swam far ahead. She felt like giving up. Then she remembered to kick her strong back legs and swim steady, not fast.

Key idea: The middle is where the problem happens.

The end

In our plan, the end shows a resolution: what happens after the character responds to the problem. The character might succeed, fail, change a goal or understand something new. An ending need not solve every difficulty.

Example: Slow and steady, Tia caught up and touched the finish rock first! She had won the race. From that day on, Tia knew that trying her best mattered most.

Key idea: In our example, the ending resolves the problem; other endings may leave it open.

A plan makes writing easier

Before you write a story, it helps to make a quick plan. Just jot down these four things.

1. Character: Who is the story about? (Tia the turtle)
2. Setting: Where and when? (a quiet pond)
3. Problem: What goes wrong? (the other animals are faster)
4. Solution: How is it fixed? (Tia swims slow and steady and wins)

The notes let you check how events connect. They do not guarantee an easy draft. If a better idea appears, change the plan and check what else in the story needs to change.

Key idea: A four-part plan gives you events and connections to inspect.

Make your story shine

Use fun details and strong verbs. Give your character feelings so the reader cares. Try a mix of short and long sentences.

Then read your story out loud. If it has a clear beginning, middle, and end, you have written a real story. How exciting!

Key idea: Details, strong verbs, and feelings make a story come alive.

Make the middle try, fail, then try again

Here is a pattern to try in this problem-and-resolution story. In the middle, let your character try something that does not work. Then let them try again.

Compare these two middles.

• Flat: Tia wanted to win, so she swam fast and won.
• Better: Tia swam as fast as she could, but she fell behind. She tried again and splashed even harder, and she fell further behind. Then she remembered to swim slow and steady.

The second one keeps you reading, because you do not know yet if she will make it. Other stories may focus on discovery or description instead of a failed attempt.

So when you plan your middle, write down one thing that goes wrong first.

Key idea: A failed attempt is one possible way to develop this story, not a requirement for every story.

Read a whole short story

Here is a complete story. As you read, see if you can find the beginning, the middle, and the end.

Milo the mouse lived under the porch steps. He wanted to reach the birdseed on the high shelf, but it was much too tall for him.

First he tried jumping. He landed with a thump and missed. Then he tried climbing the wall, but his paws slipped right off. Milo sat down and sighed.

Then he looked at the stack of old flowerpots by the door. One by one, he pushed them into a little staircase. Up he went, step by step, until he reached the shelf. That night Milo had the best dinner of his life.

Did you find the parts? Paragraph one is the beginning, with the character, the setting, and what he wants. Paragraph two is the middle, with two tries that fail. Paragraph three is the end, with the solution.

Key idea: A short story can be just three paragraphs long.

Story starters to try

Pick one of these and plan your four parts. Do not write the story yet. Just fill in the plan.

• A kid finds a key in the backyard.
• A dog gets loose on the first day of school.
• Two friends build something that keeps falling apart.
• Someone wakes up and everything in the house is upside down.

Write down four lines: character, setting, problem, solution. Add one thing that goes wrong before the solution.

Use the plan to begin a draft. You can also discover an idea while drafting, then return to the plan to check the sequence.

Key idea: Plan the four parts first, then write.

Start in an interesting spot

Where you begin matters. Look at these two first sentences for the same story.

• Plain: One day a boy went outside.
• Better: Jonah was halfway up the tree when he heard the branch crack.

The second one drops you right into something happening. You want to know what comes next.

You do not have to explain everything first. Start close to the exciting part and fill in the rest as you go.

Key idea: Start your story close to the interesting part.

Make an ending fit the attempts

Imagine Milo reaches the shelf but finds the birdseed gone. That ending does not solve his hunger, but it could begin a new decision. He might ask a neighbor for help. Choose the ending you want, then check whether the earlier events prepare the reader for it. A solution that appears without any connection may feel abrupt.

Check: List what changed from the beginning to the end: the situation, the character's knowledge, a relationship or a goal. The answer need not be that the character won.

Common misconceptions

• In this problem-and-resolution task, leaving the reader unable to follow the character's goal.
• In this problem-and-resolution task, an ending that does not show what happened to the problem.
• Forgetting to tell who the character is or where the story happens.
• Adding an unprepared dream ending. If the dream matters to your story, give the reader clues and a reason for the ending.

Recap

• A story tells about characters and events.
• The beginning shows the character and setting.
• Our middle develops the problem and attempts; other story shapes are possible.
• An ending can show a solution, a change or an unresolved question.
• Plan four parts before you write, and start near the action.

Sources

1. National Council of Teachers of English. (2018). Understanding and teaching writing: Guiding principles. Purpose, audience, choice and revision; a position statement, not a trial. Source
2. Graham, S., et al. (2012, revised 2018). Teaching elementary school students to be effective writers. What Works Clearinghouse practice guide. Recommendations and evidence ratings, not a guarantee for an individual learner. Source

The big picture

First, fold the paper in half. tells a reader what to do. I prefer a folded card because it can stand on a desk. gives a preference and a reason. We will try writing instructions and a supported opinion, checking what each reader needs.

Writing to explain

When you write to explain, your job is to teach the reader facts or show them how to do something. This is called informative writing, because it gives information.

Two common kinds are:

• Explaining facts: telling supported information, like "This drawing has three circles" when the drawing shows three circles.
• Explaining how-to: telling the steps to do something, like how to make a sandwich.

Key idea: Informative writing gives the reader facts or information.

Order words guide the steps

When you explain how to do something, use order words like first, next, then, and last. Order words show the steps in the right order.

Here is a how-to explanation.

To make a paper card, first place a sheet flat on a desk. Next, bring one short edge to meet the other short edge. Then press along the fold. Last, open the card and write a message inside. Check that your reader can follow which edges meet.

See how the order words guide the reader step by step? Good explaining is clear, in order, and sticks to the facts.

Key idea: Order words show the steps in the right order.

Writing an opinion

What do we call what you think or feel about something? An opinion. A preference such as a favorite color is personal. An opinion about what should happen can still rely on mistaken facts or weak reasoning, so examine its support.

For this opinion-writing task, give reasons to explain your view. A reason is a "why" that supports your opinion. A brief personal preference does not always need an argument.

Key idea: Support your view with relevant reasons in this task.

The parts of an opinion

A good opinion paragraph has three parts.

1. State your opinion: "I think recess should be longer."
2. Give reasons: "I want more time to finish our playground game and talk with my friends."
3. Wrap it up: "For these reasons, a longer recess would be great."

Key idea: State your opinion, give reasons, then wrap it up.

Opinion words

Certain words signal an opinion: I think, I believe, in my opinion, the best, my favorite, and I feel. Reasons often use the word because.

Example: Summer is the best season because I can swim and play outside. The word because connects your opinion to your reason.

Reasons help a reader understand a preference. Instead of only saying "Pizza is my favorite food," you could add "because I like warm cheese and can choose my toppings." Someone else may prefer a different food for different reasons.

Key idea: The word because helps you give a reason.

Fact or opinion?

A fact is something you can check and prove. An opinion is what someone thinks. Both are useful, but they are not the same.

Read each one and decide.

• This drawing has four corners. That is a checkable claim: inspect the drawing to see whether it is true.
• Winter is the best season. That is an opinion. Someone else might disagree.
• This pencil is longer than that crayon. Checkable claim: compare these two objects.
• Giraffes are the coolest animals. Opinion.
• Our school has four hundred students. Checkable claim: consult a current enrollment count before calling it a fact.
• Our school lunch tastes great. Opinion.

Disagreement alone is not a test: people can disagree about a checkable fact. Ask whether the statement reports something that evidence can establish or expresses a preference or judgment. A claim can be checkable but false or not yet verified.

Key idea: A fact can be checked. An opinion is what someone thinks.

Write a how-to with me

Let us write a how-to together. Our topic is drawing a simple flag on paper.

Step 1. I list the steps in order, before I write any sentences: draw a pole, add a rectangle at the top, draw a symbol inside it.

Step 2. I write a beginning sentence that tells the topic: Here is one way to draw a flag.

Step 3. I turn each step into a sentence with an order word: First, draw a straight line for the pole. Next, draw a rectangle attached to the top half of the line. Then draw a circle inside the rectangle. Last, color the circle if you wish.

Step 4. I add a closing: Your flag has a pole, a rectangular shape and a circle design.

Notice that I listed the steps before writing sentences. Then I checked the order against the drawing. A list can contain a mistake too.

Key idea: List the steps first, then turn each one into a sentence.

Strong reasons and weak reasons

Not all reasons help the same amount. Compare these.

• Opinion: Dogs make great pets. Weak reason: Because they are good. (This does not tell us anything new.)
• Same opinion. Strong reason: Because they help you get exercise every day when you walk them.
• Opinion: Our class should have a garden. Weak reason: Because I want one.
• Same opinion. Strong reason: Because we could grow vegetables and learn how plants really work.

A strong reason gives the reader something they did not already know. A weak reason just says the opinion again in different words.

After you write a reason, ask yourself, "Did I add new information?" If not, dig a little deeper.

Key idea: A strong reason adds new information, not just the same idea again.

Build an opinion paragraph

Try this one. The topic is whether the class should display its drawings.

Here is an imagined opinion paragraph. I think our class should display our drawings on the wall. I would like to see the different pictures we made. We could label each drawing so visitors know what it shows. For these reasons, I would enjoy a class display. These are the writer's reasons, not proof that every class wants the same thing.

This example has an opening opinion, two sentences supporting the proposal, and a closing. Its length is a choice for this example, not a rule for every paragraph.

Now write your own about something you actually care about. You can use your own view or explore a pretend writer's view. Explain the reasons either way.

Key idea: Our practice frame uses an opinion, supporting reasons and a closing. Other tasks may need a different structure.

Common misconceptions

• An opinion with no reasons, so it is not convincing.
• Mixing up the steps in a how-to, so the reader gets confused.
• Leaving the sequence unclear. Order words or numbered steps can help.
• Writing an opinion when the reader wanted facts, or the other way around.

Recap

• Informative writing gives the reader facts or steps.
• Order words show the steps in order.
• A fact can be checked, and an opinion is what someone thinks.
• An opinion is your own view.
• Give reasons, often with the word because, and make each one add something new.

Sources

1. National Council of Teachers of English. (2018). Understanding and teaching writing: Guiding principles. Purpose, audience, choice and revision; a position statement, not a trial. Source
2. Graham, S., et al. (2012, revised 2018). Teaching elementary school students to be effective writers. What Works Clearinghouse practice guide. Recommendations and evidence ratings, not a guarantee for an individual learner. Source

The big picture

my friend and i went to the park. The idea is understandable, but the sentence needs two capital letters in edited written English. Editing checks conventions such as spelling and punctuation. A first draft may need a small fix, a larger revision or no change in a particular sentence.

What editing is

Fixing your writing to make it better is called editing. When you make bigger changes to your ideas, it is called revising.

Editing is not a sign that you did something wrong. It is exactly what good writers do!

Key idea: Editing means fixing your writing to make it better.

Reread out loud

To reread means to read again. Try reading aloud, silently tracking each word, or asking a helper to read with you. Each offers a way to inspect what you actually wrote. None guarantees that every mistake will be found.

If something seems unclear, point to the words and explain what you meant. Breathing, accent and dialect are not tests of grammatical correctness. Check the conventions needed for this task.

Key idea: Read your writing out loud to catch mistakes.

An editing checklist

Use this editing checklist to polish any piece of writing. Read through your work once for each item.

Key idea: A checklist helps you fix one thing at a time.

Fix these sentences

Each sentence below has mistakes. Can you find and fix them?

• Weak: my friend and i went to the park. Fix: My friend and I went to the park. (capital M and capital I; the period is already present)
• For an edited past-tense report: Yesterday the dog run fast. Fix: Yesterday the dog ran fast. For a present habit, write: The dog runs fast. The intended time matters.
• Weak: we saw a big bear. Fix: We saw a big bear. (capital W; the end mark is already present)
• Weak: i like apples oranges and pears. Fix: I like apples, oranges, and pears. (capital I and commas; the original period stays)

Key idea: Small fixes make a big difference.

Editing feels great

When you edit, you turn good writing into great writing. It is like cleaning up a drawing by erasing smudges and adding final touches.

Always leave a little time to edit before you say a piece is finished. Your reader will get your very best work, and you will feel proud. Writers can also work with editors and readers who notice different things.

Key idea: Always leave time to edit before you finish.

Revising and editing are two jobs

Revising means changing your ideas and words. Editing means fixing the little mistakes. Do the big job first.

Here is a sentence going through both jobs.

• First draft: the dog was nice
• After revising (better ideas): the dog wagged his whole body when he saw me
• After editing (fixed mistakes): The dog wagged his whole body when he saw me.

In this example, revising changed the description and editing changed capitals and punctuation. Writers can move back and forth between these jobs. Checking large changes before a final spelling pass can avoid polishing a sentence you then remove.

Key idea: Revise your ideas first, then edit your mistakes.

Edit in passes

Try separate passes when a long checklist feels hard to manage. Choose one kind of check, then another. You can adapt the number of passes to your writing and the support you need.

1. Read once, looking only at capitals.
2. Read again, looking only at end marks.
3. Read again, checking that every sentence is whole.
4. Read one last time, circling words that look misspelled.

Compare your marked draft with your revised copy. Which specific problems did this method help you notice? There is no promised speed advantage; keep or adapt the method based on what you can check.

Key idea: Hunt for one kind of mistake at a time.

Edit a whole paragraph

Here is a messy paragraph. Read it, find the mistakes, then check my fixed version.

my family went to the beach on saturday. we built a big sandcastle. The waves knocked it down we built it again. my sister found a shell.

Here is the fixed version. My family went to the beach on Saturday. We built a big sandcastle. The waves knocked it down, so we built it again. My sister found a shell.

The fixes were: three sentences needed capitals at the start, Saturday is a day so it needs a capital, and one run-on needed the word "so" with a comma.

Did you find all five? If you found three or four, that is already good editing.

Key idea: Real editing means finding several small things, not one big thing.

Helping a friend edit

Sometimes you get to read a classmate's writing. Being helpful is a skill, and here is how to do it kindly.

• Start with something true that you liked. "Your first sentence made me want to keep reading."
• Ask instead of telling. "Did you mean to end this one with a question mark?"
• Point at one or two things, not twenty. Agree on a manageable next step.
• Remember it is their writing. You give ideas. They decide.

And when someone edits your work, try to hear it as help, not as criticism. Many published writers work with other readers or editors; that help does not make the writing less theirs.

Key idea: Kind, specific feedback helps a writer more than a long list.

Common misconceptions

• Saying you are done before you reread your work.
• Checking only for spelling and forgetting capitals and end marks.
• Relying on only one quick read. Try a focused check, aloud or silently, and compare with the relevant example.
• Editing before you have revised, so you polish sentences you will cut anyway.

Recap

• Editing means fixing mistakes to make writing better.
• Revise your ideas first, then edit your mistakes.
• Reread out loud, and hunt for one kind of mistake per pass.
• Use a checklist: capitals, end marks, complete sentences, spelling, spaces, and sense.
• Checking and revising are skills you can practice with help.

Sources

1. National Council of Teachers of English. (1974). Resolution on the students' right to their own language. Dialect respect and access to edited written English. Source
2. National Council of Teachers of English. (2018). Understanding and teaching writing: Guiding principles. Purpose, audience, choice and revision; a position statement, not a trial. Source
3. Graham, S., McKeown, D., Kiuhara, S., and Harris, K. R. (2012). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for students in the elementary grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(4), 879-896. Author-name correction: doi:10.1037/a0029939. Source

The big picture

Spelling is putting the right letters in the right order to make a word. Some words are easy. Some are tricky. Today we learn tools for trying a spelling and checking it against a reliable example. Let us fill your spelling toolbox!

What spelling is

What does it mean to put the right letters in the right order to write a word? That is spelling. Good spelling helps your reader understand you.

The good news is that smart spelling strategies make spelling easier. A strategy is a helpful plan or trick.

Key idea: Spelling strategies are tricks that help you spell.

Strategy 1: Sound it out

For many words, you can sound it out. Say the word slowly. Listen for each sound. Then choose a letter or group of letters for each sound.

Try cat: the sounds give you c-a-t. Try splash: /s/ /p/ /l/ /a/ /sh/. The last sound is written with two letters, sh. Stretching a word out like a rubber band helps you hear all the sounds.

Key idea: Sound it out by choosing letters or letter groups for the sounds.

Strategy 2: Break it into chunks

A chunk is a small part of a word that is easier to spell. Break a long word into chunks, spell each chunk, then put them together.

• sunset = sun + set
• rainbow = rain + bow
• basket = bas + ket

Key idea: Break a big word into small chunks.

Strategy 3: Use word families

A word family is a group of words that end the same way. A shared ending can help, but you must check the beginning: light becomes bright by replacing l with br, not just changing one letter.

• The -ight family: light, night, right, sight, bright
• The -ake family: cake, lake, make, bake, snake
• The -all family: ball, call, fall, tall, small

Key idea: A word family shares the same ending.

Strategy 4: Learn tricky words by heart

Some words do not follow the usual rules. We call these tricky words, and we practice them until we know them. Words like said, because, friend, they, would, and people are tricky.

A fun trick is to make a saying to remember the letters. To spell because, some kids say: Big Elephants Can Always Understand Small Elephants. A saying can serve as a reminder; check whether you can later spell the word without it.

Key idea: Practice tricky words until you know them by heart.

Strategy 5: Look, cover, write, check

This is a great way to practice any spelling word.

1. Look at the word carefully.
2. Cover it with your hand.
3. Write it from memory.
4. Check it against the real word. If it is wrong, try again!

Key idea: Look, cover, write, check helps you practice any word.

Be patient and keep going

Nobody spells every word perfectly, and that is okay. When you are not sure, sound it out, use your strategies, or ask for help or a word wall.

Reading and writing give you chances to notice and use spelling patterns. Be patient with yourself, keep practicing, and check which words you can still spell after a break. Progress need not be the same every day.

Key idea: Reading and writing a lot makes spelling grow.

Strategy 6: think about word parts

Many long words are just a small word with a part added on the end. If you can spell the small word, you are most of the way there.

• jump becomes jumps, jumped, jumping
• help becomes helps, helped, helping, helpful
• play becomes plays, played, playing, player

There are two spelling rules worth knowing here.

Many words ending in a consonant plus silent e drop that e before ing: bake becomes baking. Do not apply this to every final e: see becomes seeing, and be becomes being. Check unfamiliar forms.

In one-syllable words such as hop and run, a single short vowel followed by one final consonant often calls for doubling before ing: hopping, running. Do not double final w, x or y: snowing, mixing, playing. Longer words need other checks, including stress. Hoping comes from hope and means something different from hopping.

Key idea: Spell the little word first, then add the ending.

Words that sound the same

Some words sound exactly alike but are spelled differently. These are called homophones. Sound alone cannot tell you which spelling fits. You have to know which one you mean.

• to means toward, as in "go to school." too means also or more than is wanted, as in "me too" and "too hot." two is the number 2.
• there is a place, as in "over there." their means it belongs to them. they're is short for "they are."
• your means it belongs to you. you're is short for "you are."

Here is a memory helper. Too has an extra o because it means extra. Two starts with tw, like twin and twice, which are both about 2. And there has the word here hiding inside it, and here is a place.

These spellings deserve a meaning check. Slow down and pick on purpose.

Key idea: Homophones sound alike, so choose by meaning, not by sound.

Try these with a strategy

For each word, decide which strategy fits best. Then spell it.

• flag. Sound it out: f-l-a-g.
• cupcake. Chunk it: cup + cake.
• bright. Word family: it is in the -ight family with light and night.
• friend. Tricky word. Learn it by heart. Some kids remember that a friend is there to the end.
• skipping. Word parts: skip plus ing, and double the p.
• because. Tricky word. Use your silly saying.

Notice that different words need different tools. That is why you keep several in your toolbox.

Key idea: Pick the strategy that fits the word in front of you.

Keep your own word list

Here is a record-keeping method to try. Get a small notebook and start a personal spelling list.

Every time you misspell a word in your writing, add the correct spelling to the list. Do not add words you already know. Only the ones that tripped you.

Choose a few words to practice with Look, Cover, Write, Check. After checking, mark the exact letters you missed. At a later session, write each word in a new sentence without copying it. Keep practicing the ones that still need help; no fixed schedule guarantees mastery.

A spelling error can come from a new pattern, a slip, uncertainty or other difficulties. It does not measure your intelligence. Ask for support if a pattern keeps causing trouble.

Key idea: Keep a list of the words that trip you, and practice a few each day.

Common misconceptions

• Guessing at a tricky word instead of using a strategy.
• Forgetting silent letters, like the k in know.
• Writing "hoping" when you mean "hopping." Remember to double the letter.
• Mixing up to, too, and two, or there, their, and they're.
• Giving up. Try Look, Cover, Write, Check instead.

Recap

• Sound out a word by choosing letters or letter groups for the sounds.
• Break big words into chunks.
• Use word families that share an ending.
• Spell the little word first, then add the ending.
• Homophones sound alike, so choose by meaning.
• Practice tricky words with Look, Cover, Write, Check.

Sources

1. Department for Education. (2013). English Appendix 1: Spelling, sound-letter patterns and suffix guidance. British spelling examples; check the variety used for your task. Source
2. Department for Education. (2013). English glossary, entries on sentences, word classes and phonemes. Terminology reference; its curriculum jurisdiction is England. Source
3. Graham, S., et al. (2012, revised 2018). Teaching elementary school students to be effective writers. What Works Clearinghouse practice guide. Recommendations and evidence ratings, not a guarantee for an individual learner. Source